Trends Biochem Sci 34(5):217-23 (2009)
Four stages of a scientific discipline; four types of scientist.
Alexander M Shneider
Cure Lab, 43 Rybury Hillway, Needham, MA 02492, USA.
In this article I propose the classification of the evolutionary stages that a scientific discipline evolves through and the type of scientists that are the most productive at each stage. I believe that each scientific discipline evolves sequentially through four stages. Scientists at stage one introduce new objects and phenomena as subject matter for a new scientific discipline. To do this they have to introduce a new language adequately describing the subject matter. At stage two, scientists develop a toolbox of methods and techniques for the new discipline. Owing to this advancement in methodology, the spectrum of objects and phenomena that fall into the realm of the new science are further understood at this stage. Most of the specific knowledge is generated at the third stage, at which the highest number of original research publications is generated. The majority of third-stage investigation is based on the initial application of new research methods to objects and/or phenomena. The purpose of the fourth stage is to maintain and pass on scientific knowledge generated during the first three stages. Groundbreaking new discoveries are not made at this stage. However, new ways to present scientific information are generated, and crucial revisions are often made of the role of the discipline within the constantly evolving scientific environment. The very nature of each stage determines the optimal psychological type and modus operandi of the scientist operating within it. Thus, it is not only the talent and devotion of scientists that determines whether they are capable of contributing substantially but, rather, whether they have the 'right type' of talent for the chosen scientific discipline at that time. Understanding the four different evolutionary stages of a scientific discipline might be instrumental for many scientists in optimizing their career path, in addition to being useful in assembling scientific teams, precluding conflicts and maximizing productivity. The proposed model of scientific evolution might also be instrumental for society in organizing and managing the scientific process. No public policy aimed at stimulating the scientific process can be equally beneficial for all four stages. Attempts to apply the same criteria to scientists working on scientific disciplines at different stages of their scientific evolution would be stimulating for one and detrimental for another. In addition, researchers operating at a certain stage of scientific evolution might not possess the mindset adequate to evaluate and stimulate a discipline that is at a different evolutionary stage. This could be the reason for suboptimal implementation of otherwise well-conceived scientific policies. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2009.02.002
会散时美教授身边也有一堆人围着问问题，我插到空档，立刻就打了招呼开口自
我介绍，还递上了一篇我所发文章的单行本，美教授一手接过单行本，我立刻把
我的想法说给美教授听，刚说了一句，美教授才刚刚眼睛扫过单行本封面，就眼
也不抬地问我"你用不用韦伯函数？"我一听如雷灌顶，知道对路子了，赶忙说
用，我就是用韦伯函数算的。美教授这才抬头看我一眼，"你似乎正在正确地接
近问题(It seems that you are approching the problem correctly)."。立刻，
别人又插
上来问美教授问题了，我只来得及挤出一句"thank you"。
鬼节的另一好处是促进人们的交往。欧洲和拉美国家有狂欢节，有关狂欢节让人们一时抛弃身份地位的平等作用，在社会学和文学批评中的论述已是汗牛充栋。美国的鬼节虽然没有那么狂，那么欢，那么大面积地“一夜平权”，但在这个理论上没有社会等级，而实事上因经济差异还相当不平等的社会里，鬼节起到了与狂欢节很近似的作用。白天，工作单位里无论是总裁还是职工，大家都换上奇装异服，扮上鬼脸，一反平日正襟危坐的严肃模样，嘻嘻哈哈一天。虽然一年只是这么一天，其效果却令人难以想象。那些平日不待见的人，如果带上了丑陋的面具，你可以痛痛快快地告诉他：“你今天比往常好看多了！”他就是爱生气，也不会生气，俩人在笑声中可能就开始亲近了。如果是老板来了，你不妨直说：“我真希望你老戴着这种面具，比那一本正经的面孔可亲多了。”多数人可能会因此而有所改进。晚上，带着化了装的孩子，拎着小桶，在社区里转悠，只要门口亮灯，就去敲门高叫：“Trick or treat！”无论是深宅大院，还是柴扉小屋，主人都会友善地出来，欣赏你给孩子的装扮，甚至假装吓得半死，再给孩子们一些糖果。在欢笑中，邻里亲近了。即便是平日里“鸡犬之声相闻，老死不相往来”的那种美国人，今晚也会门户大开，以笑脸和糖果相迎，而绝不会像杜甫那样，因为小孩子拿走几根茅草而哭天抹泪地哀怨（真不懂这老夫子怎么还可能大庇天下众寒士）。当然，你自己也应准备好糖果。尤其是没有小孩子的人家，你要是不出门，就等邻居来访，别关着灯，一屋死气沉沉，连鬼都不上门，自绝于这热热闹闹的大千世界。
The one on the left is missing something...K. Welsh, Alamy / R. Cyril, BIOSphoto, Still Pictures
Nature（McLean, C. Y. et al. Nature 471, 216-219 (2011)）发表了一篇斯坦福大学科学家们的研究文章，他们要研究人类的某些独特特性到底是如何进化来的。和以前不同的是，他们并没有研究人类在进化过程中如何获得基因或者是旧的基因获得新的功能，而是和人类的近亲黑猩猩的基因组比较，看人类在进化过程中，‘丢失’了哪些DNA。经过比较，他们发现人类的基因组上竟然比黑猩猩少了510段DNA序列，而这些序列基本都属于基因组的非编码区。非编码区或内含子的DNA以前被一些一知半解的科普作者说成是毫无用处的‘垃圾基因’或‘垃圾DNA’,甚至被用来证明人类不是上帝设计的证据
（方舟子：总之，内含子和假基因都是生物在长期的进化过程中堆积下来的垃圾。这类垃圾，是生物进化的最好的证据，也是对于存在智能设计者的观点的最有力的否定。）
1954年美国乔治敦大学，在IBM公司的支持下，进行了第一次机器翻译试验，把俄文译成了英文。五年之后，1959年中国试验成功了俄汉机器翻译。当年，由于计算机软硬件能力有限，只能在有限的范围内进行很简单的翻译试验。如今，机器容量和速度已不成问题，翻译能力大增，在线翻译也已实现。但总的说来，还有不少问题。例如， Google的翻译工具，把I don’t go to the party 和 I didn’t go to the party 都翻译成“我没有去参加派对”。
1) [英译中] I played basketball at school this morning.
我打了今天上午在学校的篮球。[Google]
我在学校打篮球，今天上午。[Baidu]
[中译英] 我今天上午在学校打篮球了。
This morning I played basketball in school. [Google]
Today I am playing basketball at school. [Baidu]
2) This black granite wall includes the names of over 58,000 American soldiers who died or disappeared during the Vietnam War.
这个黑色花岗岩墙包括超过58,800人死亡或在越南战争期间失踪的美国士兵的名字。[Google]
这个黑色的花岗岩壁包括姓名，超过58000名美国士兵死亡或失踪，在越南战争。[Baidu]
3) The newest of the Presidential memorials is dedicated to Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Located in west Potomac Park, it includes four open air rooms made of rough granite blocks. The four rooms symbolize the four terms that President Roosevelt served guiding the nation through the Great Depression and World War ll.
在我朋友的这个具体例子中；朋友信任方舟子，可方舟子控制信息，只让这位朋友看到了那张五岳散人一脸凶相，领着木刀的照片。这样再理性的人（我的朋友是理科生），他不可避免地对散人产生恶感，一旦你对一个人产生了恶感，你再去看有关这个人的全部信息，你的眼睛只会看到那些“尊重”你的感觉的信息；英文叫：You see what you want to see（你只看到你想看到的东西）。这就是我们人人下意识的信息选择性！
【立委按】要说这世界雷锋并没有绝迹，远在天边，近在眼前，咱科网就有。不过因为大数据时代了，信息泛滥，人心浮躁，雷锋们比较矮小，常被视为无物而已。不必谦虚，自举不避嫌，立博（立委博客）就是一例。单说这 n 年如一日编发【镜子大全】，洋洋洒洒百万言。连铁石心肠的毛委员都会被感动，说：一个人做点好事并不难，难的是天天做好事。今天再添一好事，编发【唐老师网文钩沉】一篇，与各位分享。
【立委按】见过能侃的，这么能侃的还真不多见。显然作者读书涉猎很广，也比较善于思考，表达能力更了得。他对大数据前景的描述还是有参阅价值的，虽然有些事例显然是张冠李戴。比如关于“开除一个语言学家，则系统质量就提高几个百分点”是一个NLP历史上著名的掌故，讲的是近20年前 IBM 实验室的语音系统（见【立委随笔：文傻和理呆的世纪悲剧】），却被按到现代的 Google Translate 项目上。
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, therefore,
The General Assembly,
Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
第三条
人人有权享有生命、自由和人身安全。
第四条
奴役严禁。
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
第四条
任何人不得使为奴隶或奴役；一切形式的奴隶制度和奴隶买卖，均应予以禁止。
第五条
虐待可耻。
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
第五条
任何人不得加以酷刑，或施以残忍的、不人道的或侮辱性的待遇或刑罚。
第六条
无论何地，一视同仁。
Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
第六条
人人在任何地方有权被承认在法律前的人格。
第七条
法律面前，人人平等。不受歧视，同享法制。
Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
第八条
任何人当宪法或法律所赋予他的基本权利遭受侵害时，有权由合格的国家法庭对这种侵害行为作有效的补救。
第九条
公安为民，严禁滥权。
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
第九条
任何人不得加以任意逮捕、拘禁或放逐。
第十条
司法独立，公开审讯。
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
1. Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
2. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each State.
2. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
第十三条
（一）人人在各国境内有权自由迁徙和居住。
（二）人人有权离开任何国家，包括其本国在内，并有权返回他的国家。
第十四条
此地迫害，他国避难。自主自由，天赋人权。
Article 14
1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
第十四条
（一）人人有权在其他国家寻求和享受庇护以避免迫害。
（二）在真正由于非政治性的罪行或违背联合国的宗旨和原则的行为而被起诉的情况下，不得援用此种权利。
第十五条
国籍天然，换籍自愿。
Article 15
1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
第十五条
（一）人人有权享有国籍。
（二）任何人的国籍不得任意剥夺，亦不得否认其改变国籍的权利。
第十六条
男女平等，自由成亲。
两厢情愿，禁止逼婚。
组建家庭，社会单元。
Article 16
1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
1. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
第十七条
（一）人人都有单独的财产所有权以及同他人合有的所有权。
（二）任何人的财产不得任意剥夺。
第十八条
思想无罪，信仰自由。
Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
第二十条
（一）人人有权享有和平集会和结社的自由。
（二）任何人不得迫使隶属于某一团体。
第二十一条
民议国事，匹夫有责。或选代表，或竞公职。
人民意愿，政府之基。平等投票，自由选举。
Article 21
1. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
2. Everyone has the right to equal access to public service in his country.
3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
3. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.
4. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
第二十四条
人人有享有休息和闲暇的权利，包括工作时间有合理限制和定期给薪休假的权利。
第二十五条
全民社保，衣食住医。救济贫困，社保病疾。孤寡有助，老有所依。
照顾妇孺，责归社稷。婚生私生，呵护无歧。
Article 25
1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
2. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
1. Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
第二十七条
（一）人人有权自由参加社会的文化生活，享受艺术，并分享科学进步及其产生的福利。
（二）人人对由于他所创作的任何科学、文学或美术作品而产生的精神的和物质的利益，有享受保护的权利。
第二十八条
普世人权，人人惠及。务必保障，国内国际。
Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
第二十八条
人人有权要求一种社会的和国际的秩序，在这种秩序中，本宣言所载的权利和自由能获得充分实现。
第二十九条
人人有责，社会维系。
他人权益，不得侵蚀。
Article 29
1. Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.
2. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
Trends Biochem Sci 34(5):217-23 (2009)
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